Anthropology in the 20th century underwent significant transformations, both in its theoretical frameworks and methodologies. Here’s a breakdown of how it developed:
Early 20th Century: From Evolutionism to Historical Particularism
- Evolutionism: Early in the century, anthropologists like Edward Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan’s evolutionary ideas persisted, suggesting that all societies develop through the same stages from savagery to civilization.
- Historical Particularism: Franz Boas, often called the father of American anthropology, critiqued evolutionary theory and advocated for historical particularism. He argued that each culture developed according to its unique history and circumstances. Boas emphasized fieldwork and collecting detailed ethnographic data, laying the foundation for modern cultural anthropology.
1920s-1940s: Structural Functionalism and the Rise of Fieldwork
- Bronisław Malinowski: A key figure in the development of modern ethnography, Malinowski emphasized the importance of long-term participant observation. He argued that anthropologists should live among the people they studied and participate in their daily lives. His work in the Trobriand Islands led to the development of functionalism, which focused on understanding how social institutions functioned to maintain social stability.
- A.R. Radcliffe-Brown: Alongside Malinowski, Radcliffe-Brown developed structural functionalism, which emphasized the social structures and institutions within a society, analyzing how each element worked together to maintain the system.
Mid-20th Century: Cultural Anthropology, Postwar Influence, and Structuralism
- Cultural Anthropology: The influence of Boas, Malinowski, and Radcliffe-Brown continued, with a focus on studying the lived experiences of different cultures through fieldwork. Cultural anthropology grew as a dominant subfield in the U.S.
- Structuralism: In the 1940s and 1950s, Claude Lévi-Strauss introduced structuralism, a theoretical approach that sought to understand the underlying structures of human thought, particularly through myths and kinship systems. His work emphasized the universality of human cognition and its influence on social organization.
- Post-WWII Changes: Anthropology in Europe and the U.S. was influenced by the political and social upheavals following WWII. The focus of anthropology expanded to issues of colonialism, race, identity, and power dynamics.
1960s-1970s: Political and Theoretical Shifts
- Postmodernism and Reflexivity: By the 1960s and 1970s, anthropologists like Clifford Geertz and Victor Turner questioned the objectivity of anthropological research. The rise of postmodernism led to more emphasis on reflexivity—acknowledging the anthropologist’s role in shaping the research and recognizing their influence on the fieldwork.
- Critical Anthropology: Influenced by Marxist theory, critical anthropology became popular, particularly in the 1970s, as anthropologists like Eric Wolf and Sidney Mintz began to focus on issues such as capitalism, global inequality, and the politics of anthropology itself.
- Feminist Anthropology: Feminist scholars like Margaret Mead, and later, scholars like Lila Abu-Lughod, challenged the field’s male-dominated perspectives, bringing gender into the center of anthropological analysis and critiquing the way women were depicted in anthropological work.
1980s-Present: Globalization, Postcolonialism, and the Rise of Multidisciplinary Approaches
- Postcolonialism: Postcolonial theorists like Edward Said influenced anthropology, particularly in examining the role of colonialism in shaping anthropological theory and practice. This led to an increased focus on indigenous perspectives and decolonizing anthropology.
- Globalization: With the rise of globalization, anthropologists increasingly focused on global systems of economics, politics, and culture. Issues like migration, the spread of multinational corporations, and the interconnectedness of cultures became key topics of study.
- Biological Anthropology and New Archaeology: Advances in genetics and evolutionary theory led to a rise in biological anthropology and a more scientific approach to human evolution. Similarly, New Archaeology, led by figures like Lewis Binford, emphasized the scientific study of past human behavior and the use of scientific methods to understand archaeological data.
Key Areas of Development
- Ethnography: The practice of fieldwork and long-term immersion became central to anthropology, and ethnography evolved to include not just descriptions of cultures but also reflections on the anthropologist’s role in the research.
- Interdisciplinary Approaches: Anthropology increasingly incorporated theories and methods from other disciplines, including sociology, psychology, economics, and political science, to better understand complex global issues.