X-ray diffraction (XRD) can be used to analyze a wide range of crystalline materials, including:
- Inorganic solids – such as metals, metal oxides, ceramics, and minerals.
- Organic crystals – like pharmaceuticals, small organic molecules, and molecular crystals.
- Polymers – particularly semi-crystalline or crystalline polymers to study their structure.
- Alloys and metals – to determine phases, crystallinity, and composition.
- Thin films and coatings – to study crystal orientation and layer structure.
- Nanomaterials – to determine particle size, crystallite size, and lattice strain.
- Geological samples – rocks, clays, and minerals to identify mineral composition.
Limitation: XRD mainly works for materials that are at least partially crystalline; amorphous materials (like glass or gels) produce broad, weak patterns and are harder to analyze.
In short, any material with a regular atomic arrangement can be studied using XRD.