The 20th century witnessed several major shifts in anthropological thought, influenced by both historical events and evolving intellectual movements. Here are some of the key changes:
1. From Evolutionism to Historical Particularism (Early 20th Century)
- Evolutionism: In the late 19th century, anthropologists like Edward Burnett Tylor and Lewis Henry Morgan believed in the unilinear evolution of cultures, where societies progress through fixed stages (e.g., from savagery to civilization).
- Historical Particularism: Franz Boas challenged the idea of cultural evolution, emphasizing that each culture develops uniquely based on its history and environment. He argued for the importance of fieldwork and detailed ethnographic studies, advocating that cultures should be understood within their own historical context.
2. Functionalism (1920s-1940s)
- Bronisław Malinowski and A.R. Radcliffe-Brown are the key figures associated with functionalism, which focuses on the role that cultural practices and institutions play in maintaining the stability and functionality of a society.
- Malinowski, through his fieldwork in the Trobriand Islands, emphasized participant observation and believed that cultural practices were not arbitrary but served specific needs, such as ensuring social cohesion and meeting basic human needs.
- Radcliffe-Brown’s structural functionalism focused on how social institutions function to preserve social order.
3. Structuralism (1950s-1970s)
- Led by Claude Lévi-Strauss, structuralism posited that human cultures could be understood in terms of underlying structures, particularly the binary oppositions (e.g., life/death, nature/culture) that shape human thought and social organization.
- Structuralists argued that these mental structures are universal and influence the way societies construct meaning.
4. Post-World War II and the Rise of Cultural Anthropology (1940s-1960s)
- After WWII, anthropology became increasingly focused on culture as a central concept, with anthropologists like Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead emphasizing the relationship between culture and individual behavior. Their works argued that cultural patterns could shape personality and social roles.
- Cultural relativism became a core principle, with the idea that cultures must be understood on their own terms, without imposing external value judgments.
5. Interpretive Anthropology (1970s)
- Clifford Geertz and others in the 1970s shifted the focus of anthropology toward interpretation and the symbolic meanings within cultures. Geertz’s concept of “thick description” argued that ethnography should not just describe behaviors but also interpret their meanings within the cultural context.
- Interpretive anthropology was deeply concerned with understanding the subjective meanings that people give to their own lives.
6. Marxist Anthropology (1960s-1980s)
- Influenced by Marxist theory, anthropologists like Eric Wolf and Maurice Godelier focused on the economic and power structures within societies. Marxist anthropology emphasized the role of economic systems (such as capitalism and feudalism) in shaping social relations and cultural practices.
- They critiqued previous models that ignored class struggle and the material conditions of life, advocating for the analysis of inequality and exploitation.
7. Feminist Anthropology (1970s-Present)
- Feminist anthropology emerged as a critique of the male-dominated field. Scholars like Sherry Ortner, Gayle Rubin, and Lila Abu-Lughod examined how gender structures influenced cultural practices, challenging the assumption that anthropological knowledge was neutral or universal.
- Feminist anthropologists also focused on the marginalization of women and other groups in traditional anthropological accounts.
8. Postcolonial Anthropology (1980s-Present)
- With the decline of colonialism, postcolonial theorists such as Edward Said, Homi K. Bhabha, and Gayatri Spivak critiqued the ways in which anthropology had been complicit in colonial power dynamics.
- Postcolonial anthropology questioned the authority of anthropologists as outsiders and examined the ways in which colonialism had shaped the ways cultures were understood and represented.
9. The Reflexive Turn (1980s-Present)
- Reflexivity in anthropology emphasized that anthropologists should be aware of their own influence on the research process and the potential biases they bring to fieldwork and analysis.
- Scholars like James Clifford and George E. Marcus argued that anthropology should not simply represent “other” cultures but engage in self-reflection and acknowledge the power dynamics involved in research.
10. Globalization and Transnationalism (1990s-Present)
- The rise of globalization and the increasing interconnectedness of the world led anthropologists to focus on how cultures are impacted by global forces, such as migration, economic systems, and technology.
- Transnationalism explores how individuals and communities maintain ties across national borders, and how global flows of people, ideas, and goods reshape local cultural practices.