How did anthropology contribute to race and ethnicity studies during colonial times?

Anthropology played a significant role in shaping ideas about race and ethnicity during colonial times, although often in problematic ways. Early anthropologists were largely influenced by the colonial context, which often framed their research and theories in ways that justified European domination and exploitation. Here’s how anthropology contributed:

1. Racial Classification: One of the primary ways anthropology contributed to race and ethnicity studies was through the development of racial classification systems. Early anthropologists like Franz Boas, although later critical of such ideas, were preceded by figures such as Johann Blumenbach and others who sought to categorize humans into distinct “races” based on physical characteristics like skull shape, skin color, and other bodily features. These racial categories often supported colonial ideologies by suggesting that certain races were superior to others.
2. Ethnographic Research: Anthropologists in colonial contexts often conducted fieldwork among indigenous populations, which they classified as “primitive” or “savage.” This research was often framed in ways that reinforced stereotypes about non-European societies being backward, uncivilized, or in need of European intervention and governance. Ethnographic studies were used to justify the imposition of colonial rule and often portrayed indigenous cultures as static or unchanging, reinforcing the idea that they were “inferior” to European cultures.
3. Scientific Racism: Anthropology in the colonial era contributed to the development of “scientific racism,” a movement that used pseudo-scientific methods to justify racial hierarchies. For example, craniometry (the measurement of skulls) was used to support claims of European superiority by suggesting that non-European peoples had smaller or less developed brains. This was widely used to justify the enslavement of African people and the colonization of indigenous populations.
4. Ethnocentrism: Anthropologists, particularly in the 19th and early 20th centuries, often approached their studies with an ethnocentric perspective. This meant that they viewed European culture and society as the “norm” and evaluated other societies and cultures based on their perceived differences from this standard. This led to the idea that non-European societies were less advanced or “civilized,” contributing to the justification for colonialism and exploitation.
5. Colonial Governance and Control: Some anthropologists worked directly with colonial administrations to help maintain control over indigenous populations. Their studies were often used to understand indigenous customs, social structures, and behaviors, with the goal of improving colonial governance. This knowledge could be used to create policies that maintained power dynamics between colonizers and colonized peoples, often reinforcing divisions based on race and ethnicity.